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INTRODUCTION

 

• After the decline of the Indus Civilization there are evidence of some new inhabitants in north India. These new inhabitants are called themselves Arya (called Aryans today)
• The Period which vedas are composed is known as the Vedic Age. 
• There is an archaeological evidence to show that in the centuries following 2000 BC, north-west India was  invaded by some tribes from the west. They were called Aryans who ultimately occupied the greater part of northern India.
• The branch of Aryans who migrated from central Asia and settled in India are called the “Indo-Aryans”

(b) Original Home of the Aryans

• Scholars and historians are agreed that Aryans were migrated from Central Asia and settled in northern India defeating the natives of India.
• Majority of historians have identified Central Asia as the original home of the Aryans.

(c) Advent of the Aryans :

• In about 1500 BC Indo-European speaking people known as the Aryans migrated from the region around Caspian Sea to India. They were pastoral nomads. Their main occupation was cattle rearing.
• Aryans lived in tribes, spoke Sanskrit and worshipped the forces of nature.
• They wrote hymns in praise of Gods. The collection of these hymns was first found in the Rig Veda.
• Punjab was their permanent home From here they moved in bands westwards, southwards and eastwards, conquering local populations.
• Aryan brought with them their patrilineal family system, worship of sky-gods, and horses and chariots. They intermarried with the local inhabitants. Thus we see the emergence of the pre-Vedic and Vedic cultures.

The Rigvedic Settlements 

• The early Aryans lived in the Sapta Sindhu region for a long time. They gave the name Brahmavarta to this region. It was during this period that Rigveda was written.
• Their settlement extended from the Himalayas to the Vindhya mountains. They named this region Aryavarta or the land of Aryans.
• Rig Veda
• This is the earliest Veda, having 1028 Hymns, in praises of nature. It also gives us information on Geographical Location, social, political and economic life of those people who lived in the period 1500 BC – 1000 BC.

Polity in Rigvedic Age 

• Rig Veda speaks about the famous tribes Bharata and their war against other tribes. The tribes lived in villages called Grama and wars were fought over possession of cattle called Gravisti. This veda also mentions about Dasas-who were non-Aryan tribes.
• The tribal chief of Bharata was called Rajan. During war he was helped by Senani (field marshal)
• The assembly of elders called ‘Sabhas’ and ‘Samithi’, assembly of advisers, also advised and assisted Rajan. The other councils were ‘gana’ and ‘vidatha’ which was attended by women also.

Society

• During Rig vedic times, people lived in small units called Kula.
• The Eldest male member of  the family was called Grihapati and decisions made by him was strictly followed. Such a system is called Patriarchal system.
• Many Kula’s were called vis (clan), many clans formed a jana (tribes). These tribes formed a village or Gram which was migratory.
• Society was divided on the basis of Varnas (type of occupation). They were,

    Brahmins : Who looked after all religious matters.
    Kshatriyas : Who ruled the kingdom and protected their tribes.
    Vaishyas : Who were traders,  cultivators and artisans.
    Shudhras : Who did menial tasks and served all the other three varnas.

• Religion : By this time it had taken a concrete shape. People worshipped natural forces like Prithvi (earth), Agni (fire), Vayu (wind), Surya (Sun), Jal (Water), Varun (Sky) and Indra (rain)

Economy

• Agriculture and animal husbandry were their main occupations. Apart from wheat and barley they grew rice also.
• Cow was, the main wealth, and people’s assets were judged by the number  of cattle they possessed.
• Trading flourished through the exchanging of materials with tribes of other villages. This system is called Bartering.

Later Vedic Age (1000 BC – 600 BC)
(a) Polity 

• The king’s power increased; he now ruled over kingdom rather than over nomadic tribes.
• From the texts we come to know that there were two powerful tribes Kuru and Panchals. These kings asserted their supremacy by offering many sacrifices like Rajasuya (coronation), Vajpeya (chariot race) and Ashwamedha (horse sacrifices)
• Vedic texts also state that the king was helped additionally by Sangrihitri (treasurer) and Suta (charioteer) apart from Senani, Purohita, Gramini etc. Sabha and Samithi lost their importance as compared to the Rig Vedic Age.

(b) Society
    Varna System :

• The four fold division of society Brahmin, Kshatriyas, Vaishya and Shudras) became clear. The power of the brahmanas increased so much that they sometimes came into conflict  with the rajanyas for supremacy.
• Brahmans occupied a high position in the society controlling all aspects of rituals and sacrificial offerings.
• Kshatriyas improved the extent of their land holding or kingdoms.
• The Vaishyas consolidated their position as a trading community.
• Shudras were treated badly and made to do all menial jobs.

Family 

• The pattern of family was patriarchal. The family was headed by male members and their powers increased father could even disinherit his son. Male ancestors were also worshipped and kingship became hereditary.
• Women’s status deteriorated. Women were considered inferior, not treated well and also not allowed to attend public meetings.

Types of marriage 

• There were eight types of marriage, Brahma, Daiva, Arsa, Prajapatya, Gandhara, Asura, Rakshasa, Paishach.
• The institution of gotra appeared, people began to practise gotra exogamy.

Asharamas : The style of like

• An Aryan’s life was divided into four stages (ashramas) during this Vedic Period. Of the four ashramas or four stages of life, Brahmachari (1–25 years), Grihastha (25–50 years) and Vanaprasth (50–75 years) and Sanyas (75–150 years)
• Brahmcharya ; Brahmcharya or the student life was the first stage.
• Upanayana or the sacred thread ceremony which marked the beginning of a student’s life was commemorated by the wearing of sacred threads across their chest. This right was not given to Shudra.
• Grihastha : Grihastha was the next stage, when a man marries after completing his formal education.
• Vanaprastha : Vanaprastha is the third stage of virtual retirement from worldly functional and duties.
• Sanyasa : Sanyasa is the final stage which is a period of total retirement from worldly activities and confined exclusively to meditation to be continued till death.

(c) Economy

• Agriculture and animal husbandry were the main occupanies.
• The Aryans now cultivated a large range of crops including rice, and they understood something of irrigation and manuring.
• Iron was discovered and as a result tools and implements for agriculture improved. Iron was called Shyam Ayas meaning black metal.

(d)    Literature
l    The later Vedic literature comprises the later three Vedas (Sama, Yajur and Atharva)
    Vedas : Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samveda, Arthaveda
    Rigveda : Oldest – 10 chapter one lac six thousand hymns. Gayatri Mantra is taken from this Ved Only.
    Yajurveda : 40 chapters, hymns recited with Yagyas.
    Half of this veda is written in prose and other half in poetry.
    Samveda : Styles of worship and hymns.
    Arthaveda : Its name is after the Rishi Arthava. Knowledge regarding medicine and diseases is included in this.
    Upnishad : Collection of preaching of Guru.
    Vedang : These are six and help to understand the Vedas.
    Sutra-Literature : Short Mantra for Yagya are called sutras.
    Mahakavya : Mahabharta and Ramayans.
    Ramayana : 24000 Shlokas written by Balmiki. Main theme is the victory of Rama over Ravena. The other epic of Ramayan was written by Tulsidas in a simple Avadhi language kown as Ramcharit Manas.
    Mahabharat : The description of story of Pandavas and Koravas and battle between the two of Kurushetra Ved Vyas has narrated it in one lac shlokas.
    The Gita : It is the holy book of Hindus – It is the collection of preaching by God Krishna to Arjuna during the battle between Koravas and Pandavas at Kurushetra.
    Values : Vasudhev Kutumbkam – It means the whole world should be considered as one family.
A Comtemporary Chalcolithic Settlement :

• While the Vedic culture flourished around 1500–600 BC in North India, particularly in Sapta Sindhu and the Ganga Valley, a similar culture existed in East and South India. This settlement is often referred to as contemporary Chalcolithic settlement.
• Cutlture dating 700 BC were found in settlements of West Bengal, Kesarpalli (Andhra Pradesh) and as far as Pondicherry.
• Settlements
• Most of them flourished in Deccan Area and the North West Deccan. They built rectangular and circular houses of mud, with roofs of straw supported by bamboo and floors of clay. They cultivated wheat and barley.

Trade

• All these chalcolithic settlements traded and exchanged commodities. It is evident fromemains of copper axes found in almost 20 sites.
• Conch shells, bangles from Gujarat were also traded with the settlements in Maharasthra and other parts of Deccan.

Religious Beliefs

• Worship of mother goddes and Lingam was prevalent.
• Brahma (crestor or prajapati), Vishnu (preserver) and Shiva (destroyer) became three main gods to be worshipped. Prayers continued, religious sacrifices were regular Brahmins became dominant and claimed control to all important activities related to God.

Technology

• These Chalcolithic settlements made remarkable progress in metal pots, axes, chisels, bangles, hooks, etc.
• Copper seems to have come from Khetri mines of Rajasthan.
• The largest number of copper tools were excavated in Madhya Pradesh.