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    Introduction

• In the early medieval period, the peninsular India witnessed the intense struggle for power amongst the regional kingdoms which led to their crequent  rise and fall from the 8th to 13th  century AD, the Pallavas, the Cholas and Rashtrakutas emerged as the most prominent dynasties of southeren India. 
• The first detailed description of south Indian states is found in Sangam literature belonging to the first four centuries  of the Christian era. It may be mentioned that Tamil is the oldest among the spoken and literary languages of south India and the earliest literature of this language is known as Sangam literature.  The Sangam literature preserves folk memory about the society and life in south India between the third Century BC and third Century AD.

Three-Early Kingdoms
    There were three contemporary dynasties to Sangam age : Pandyas, Cholas, Cheras
    The Pandyas :

• The Pandyan territory occupied the sourthermost and south eastern portion. It included the modern districts of Tirunelveli, Ramnad and Madurai in Tamil Nadu; its  capital was at Madurai, According to Sangam literature Nedunjeliyan was a great king who ruled around AD 210.
• The Kingdom profited from trade with the Roman empire it was famous for pearl trade.

The Cholas :

• In the middle of the second century BC, a Chola king named Elara conquered Sri Lanka and ruled over it for about 50 years.
• Kaveripattanam or Puhar, the Chola capital, was a great centre of trade and commerce, and excavations show it had a large dock.
• Under Karikala’s successors, Chola power rapidly declined. They were weak rulers including Chera and Pandya rule.

The Cheras :

• The Chera kingdom extended along the western coast-a  narrow strip of land between sea and Konkan range.
• The first ruler was Nedun Jeral Adan. He ruled around AD 130.
• The greatest Chera king was Sengutturan.

Polity

• In the Sangam Age, the most common form of government was hereditary monarchy. The powers were limited by five councils, namely, ministers (amaichchar), priests (purohitar) ; army chiefs (senapatiyar), envoys (dutar), and spies (otrar)

Economic Conditions

• The Sangam economy was mostly self sufficing. The common people were mostly agriculturists or cowherds, hunters and fisherman. They grew spices especially pepper, and exported them to the western world. They also supplied ivory, which was valued by the West. Next to agriculture, shipping and weaving were the most important and widely practised crafts.
• The most considerable single source of  revenue was land tax called Karai. Revenue was also collected from feudatories and war booty which was known as Iral.

Society

• The brahmans first appear in the south in the Sangam Age. They look wine and meat.
• The kshatriyas and vaishyas appear as regular varnas in the Sangam texts, but the class of  warriors was an important element in polity and society.
• There were sharp social inequalities. However, acute caste distinctionas were lacking. There was no prevalence of untouchability. Women’s  condition was comparatively good, though we have references to sati.

Religion

• The upper strata of society came to be influenced by the brahmanical religion. The kings performed Vedic sacrifies.
• The chief local god worshipped by the people of the hilly region was Murugan.
• Sects like Jainism, Buddhism, Ajivika etc. also appeared.

The Pallavas of Kanchi

• The age of Pallavas extended roughly from the third century AD to the end of the ninth century AD.
• Simhavishnu (575-600) : He was the strong ruler extended the Pallava Kingdom up to the river Kaveri. He vanquished the Pandyas, Cholas and Cheras, as well as the ruler of Ceylon.
• Mahendravarman I (600-630) succeeded Simhavishnu he was defeated by the Chalukyan king. Pulakesin II, for the mastery of  southern India.
• Narasimhavarman I (630-668) succeeded Mahendravarman I, who is regarded as the most successful Pallava King.

Religion :

• Brahmanism now began to dominate. Buddhism lost its hold, and Jainism was confined to Karnataka. Kings began to perform Vedic sacrifies. From about AD 400 onwards, Sanskrit became the official language.

Pallava Architecture

• Some of the architectural works are –
• Cave temples on the hill of Mandagappattu, the five celled cave temples of  at Pallavaram near Madras, the four cave temples at Mamandur and the Shiva temple at Sivamangalam. Rock cut cave at Tiruchirapalli is by the best of Mahendra’s creations.
• Famous temples are the Pancha pandava cave temples and the Pancha Pandava rathas.
• Narasimhavarman II constructed the Kaliasanath temple (eighth century) at Kanchipuram.

The cholas of Thanjavur (846-1279)

• A minor chiefly family known as the Muttaraiyar held power in the Kaveri delta. They were subordinate to the Pallava kings of Kanchipuram, Vijayalaya, who belonged to the ancient chiefly family of the Cholas from Uraiyur, captured the delta from theMuttaraiya in the middle of the ninth century and founded Chola empire in 846. He built the town of Thanjavur and a temple of goddess Nishumbhasudini there.
• Vijayalaya’s successor, Aditya I chola, wiped out the Pallavas of Kanchi and also weakened the Pandyas.

Rajaraja-I (985-1014)

• The greatest Chola rulers were Rajaraja 
• (985-1014) and his son, Rajendra – (1014-1044). Rajaraj was the sone of Parantaka II.
• Rajaraj invaded Cheras and defeated them. He also defeated the Pandya kings and the kings of Sri Lanka. He helped  the Chalukyas of Vengi. He annexed Kalinga and Maldvipa.
• Rajaraja conquered the Malabar coast and controlled Arab trade.
• He reorganised the administration. He built the temples of Rajarajeshwar and Brhideshwar.

Rajendra (1014-1044)

• Rajendra I crossed the Ganga and defeated the Pala king, Mihipala of Bengal and Bihar.
• In commemoration of his victories in the Gangetic delta, he assumed the title Gangaikonda.
• Rajendra Chola invaded Sri Lanka in 1017.
• Rajendra Chola was the only one who fought against the Shrivijay kingdom (1025) of Malaya and established the naval expendition to Shrivijay.
• He built temple of Gangakondcholpuram.
• The Chola rulers fought constantly with the later Chalukyas (or Kalyani)

Decline 

• The Chola empire remained alomost intact upto 1122.
• The Chalukyan ruler Vikramaditya regained the control.
• By the end of the 13 century Pandya and Hoysalas replaced the Cholas.
• It finally became part of Vijaynagar Kingdom in the 14th Century.

Chola-Administration :
    The dominant form of government under the Cholas was hereditary monarchy.
    Local Self - Government : The autonomous village council or local self-government was the most important characteristic of Chola administration.
    Economy : During the early part of this period the village was economically self-sufficient and the tendency hoard  wealth was not a characteristic.
    Society : The temple was the centre of social and economic life at that time, particularly in the rural areas. Devadasis were commonly found in most temples in Chola times. Caste-consciousness had become prominent in social relationships.
    Literature : 

• Literary works in Sanskrit continued to be written. Some of these works had their counterparts in Tamil. Tamil literature of this period shows greate liveliness and vigour as in Kamban’s version of the Ramayana.

Religion

• Sanskrit remained the language of Hindu theology and of the brahmans. It was also more widely used now by the Buddhists and Jains, whose numbers were on the decreases.
• The Hindu Philosophical system known as Advaita that emerged in the south, spread to the north under Cholas who were worshippers of Shiva.
• Art and Architecture :
• The Chola architects abandoned the temple cut from the rock and concentrated on free-standing stone structures. The entrances had elaborate gopurams (gateways) reflecting the style of the shikara.
• Stone sculpture was frequently used as a decorative motif in friezes and for ornamentation of pillars.
• It was, however, in bronze sculptures that the Chola craftsman excelled. They made mainly images of  deities, especially of Nataraja, the dancing Siva.